Redigerer Orkester

[[Fil:Melb symphony orchestra.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Melbourne Symfoniorkester]] med et [[kor]] i bakgrunnen]]

Et '''orkester''' er et [[musikalsk ensemble]], vanligvis innenfor [[klassisk musikk]]. Et lite orkester kalles et [[kammerorkester]].

Et orkester av full størrelse kalles noen ganger for «'''[[symfoniorkester]]'''» eller «filharmonisk orkester»; det er ingen forskjell mellom disse forstavelsene, verken med tanke på instrumentsammensetning eller orkesterets rolle, men de kan være praktiske for å skille mellom forskjellige orkestre i samme by (for eksempel Oslo symfoniorkester og Oslo filharmoniske orkester). Et symfoniorkester har vanligvis over åtti [[musiker]]e i staben, i noen tilfeller over hundre, men antallet musikere som brukes i en forestilling varierer etter hvilket verk som spilles. En annen form for orkester er "strykeorkester" og som navnet tilsier består det utelukkende av strykeinstrumenter. Et ledende kammerorkester kan ha førti eller femti medlemmer; noen er mye mindre enn det.

==Symfoniorkesteret==

:''Hovedartikkel: [[Symfoniorkester]]''

Det typiske symfoniorkester består av fire instrumentgrupper. I [[partitur]]ene står de i følgende rekkefølge:

*'''[[treblåser]]e''' ([[pikkolofløyte|pikkolo]]er, [[tverrfløyte|fløyte]]r, [[obo]]er, [[engelsk horn|engelske horn]], [[klarinett]]er, [[bassklarinett]]er, [[fagott]]er, [[kontrafagott]]er)
*'''[[messingblåser]]e''' ([[valthorn]], [[wagnertuba]]er, [[trompet]]er, [[trombone]]r, [[basstrombone]]r, [[tuba]]er)
*'''[[slagverk]]sinstrumenter''' ([[pauke|pauker]], [[skarptromme|skarptrommer]], [[stortromme|stortrommer]], [[celesta|celestaer]], [[piano|pianoer]])
*'''[[strengeinstrument]]er''' ([[fiolin]]er, [[bratsj]]er, [[cello]]er, [[kontrabass]]er.)

===Repertoar===

Det vanligste og mest fremførte [[repertoar]]et til et [[symfoniorkester]] er vestlig [[europeisk klassisk musikk|klassisk musikk]] eller [[opera]]. Det er allikevel ikke uvanlig å benytte orkestre i [[populærmusikk]].

==Lederskap==

I nyere tid blir musikerne vanligvis ledet av en [[Orkesterleder|dirigent]] selv om de tidlige orkestrene ikke hadde noen, men i stedet lot [[konsertmester]]en eller [[cembalist]]en som spilte [[continuo]] inneha denne rollen. Noen moderne orkestre klarer seg også uten dirigent, særlig mindre orkester og de som spesialiserer seg på såkalt [[autentisk oppførelsespraksis]] av [[barokkmusikk]] og eldre.

== Orkesterets historie ==
På 1400- og 1500-tallet hadde mange blant [[adel]]en i [[Italia]] ansatt musikere til dans og annen aktivitet ved hoffet. Det var derimot snarere utviklingen av teateret, og særlig operaen fra begynnelsen av 1600-tallet, som førte til at det ble mer og mer vanlig å skrive musikk for grupper av musikere, hvilket utgjør opprinnelsen til orkesterspill.

Operaen oppstod i Italia og [[Tyskland]] fulgte ivrig etter. Det ble bygd operahus i [[Dresden]], [[München]] og [[Hamburg]]. Ved slutten av 1600-tallet ble opera populært ved [[Henry Purcell]] i [[England]], og ved [[Jean-Baptiste Lully|Lully]] i [[Frankrike]]. [[Jean-Baptiste Lully|Lully]] bidro også, i samarbeid med [[Molière]], til å øke statusen til underholdningsformen [[ballett]], ispedd instrumental- og vokalmusikk.

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In the [[17th century]] and early [[18th century]] instrumental groups were taken from all of the available talent. A composer such as [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] had control over almost all of the musical resources of a town, where as [[Handel]] would hire the best musicians available. This placed a premium on being able to rewrite music for whichever singers or musicians were best suited for a performance&mdash;Handel produced different versions of the ''[[Messiah]]'' oratorio almost every year.

As nobility began to build retreats from towns, they began to hire standing bodies of musicians. Composers such as the young [[Joseph Haydn]] would have, then, a fixed body of instrumentalists to work with. At the same time, travelling virtuoso performers would write concerti that featured their skills, and travel from town to town, arranging concerts from whoever was there. The aristocratic orchestras worked together over long periods of time, making it possible for ensemble playing to improve over time.

This change, from civic music making where the composer had some degree of time or control, to smaller court music making and one-off performance, placed a premium on music that was easy to learn, often with little or no rehearsal. The results were changes in musical style and emphasis on new techniques. [[Mannheim]] had one of the most famous orchestras of that time, where notated dynamics and phrasing, previously quite rare, became standard (see [[Mannheim school]]). It also attended a change in musical style from the complex [[counterpoint]] of the [[baroque]] period, to an emphasis on clear [[melody]], homophonic textures, short phrases, and frequent cadences: a style that would later be defined as [[classical music era|classical]].

Throughout the late [[18th century]] composers would continue to have to assemble musicians for a performance, often called an "Academy", which would, naturally, feature their own compositions. In 1781, however, the [[Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra]] was organized from the merchants concert society, and it began a trend towards the formation of civic orchestras that would accelerate into the [[19th century]]. In 1818, Boston's Handel and Haydn Society was founded, in 1842 the [[New York Philharmonic]] and the [[Vienna Philharmonic]] were formed, and in 1858, the [[Hallé Orchestra]] was formed in Manchester. There had long been standing bodies of musicians around operas, but not for concert music: this situation changed in the early 19th century as part of the increasing emphasis in the composition of [[symphony| symphonies]] and other purely instrumental forms. This was encouraged by composer critics such as [[E.T.A. Hoffmann]] who declared that instrumental music was the "purest form" of music.  The creation of standing orchestras also resulted in a professional framework where musicians could rehearse and perform the same works over and over again, leading to the concept of a [[repertoire]] in instrumental music.

In the 1830s conductor [[François Antoine Habeneck]], in order to perform the symphonies of Beethoven, which had not been heard in their entirety in Paris, began rehearsing a selected group of musicians. He developed techniques of rehearsing the strings separately, notating specifics of performance, and other techniques of cueing entrances that were spread across Europe. His rival and friend [[Hector Berlioz]] would adopt many of these innovations in his touring of Europe.

This was paralleled by a rapid standardization of instruments.  The invention of the piston or valve by Stolzel and Blilmel, both Silesians, in [[1815]], was the first in a series of innovations, including the use of valves for the flute by [[Theobald Boehm]] and the innovations of [[Adolphe Sax]] in the woodwinds. These advances would lead [[Hector Berlioz]] to write his famous book on [[instrumentation]], which was the first systematic treatise on the use of instrumental sound as an expressive element of music.

The effect of the invention of valves was felt at once: instrument-makers in all countries helped with each other in making use of the newly refined instruments and in bringing them to perfection; and the orchestra was before long enriched by a new family of valved instruments, variously known as [[tuba]]s, or [[euphonium]]s and [[bombardon]]s, having a chromatic scale and a full sonorous tone of great beauty and immense volume, forming a magnificent bass. This also made possible a more uniform playing of notes or [[intonation]], which would lead to a more and more "smooth" orchestral sound that would peak in the 1950s with [[Eugene Ormandy]] and The [[Philadelphia Orchestra]] and the conducting of [[Herbert von Karajan]] with The Berlin Philharmonic .

During the transition to using these instruments, which made the performance of more difficult works easier, many composers, including Wagner and Berlioz, notated the brass parts for some of their compositions for "natural" instruments rather than the newer valved instruments. This practice made it possible for players with natural horns, for instance, to perform from the same sheet music as players with valve instruments. However, over time, use of the valved instruments became standard, indeed universal, until the revival of older instruments in the contemporary movement towards [[authentic performance]] (sometimes known as "historically informed performance").

New orchestral effects were possible now that standing orchestras had been formed, winds and brass had been expanded, and had an increasingly easy time playing in tune with each other: particularly the ability for composers to score for large masses of wind and brass that previously had been impractical.  Works such as the Requiem of Berlioz would have been impossible to perform just a few decades earlier, with its demanding parts for twenty woodwinds, as well as a gigantic brass ensemble including six horns, eight trumpets, eight trombones, and three tubas.

The next major expansion of symphonic practice came, ironically, from Wagner's [[Bayreuth Festspielhaus|Bayreuth]] orchestra, founded to play his musical dramas. Wagner needed to have a series of composers and notators for the complex scores he wrote, and had a specific role for the conductor of an orchestra that he described in his influential work "On Conducting". This led to a revolution in orchestral practice, and set the style for orchestral performance for the next eighty years. Wagner's theories changed tempi, dynamics, bowing of string instruments and the role of principals in the orchestra. Conductors who studied his methods would go on to be influential themselves.

As the early [[20th century]] dawned, symphony orchestras were larger, better-funded, and better-trained than ever before; consequently, composers could compose larger and more ambitious works. With the recording era beginning, the standard of performance reached a pinnacle. In recordings, small errors in a performance could be "fixed," but many older conductors and composers could remember a time when simply "getting through" the music as best as possible was the standard. Combined with the wider audience made possible by recording, this led to a renewed focus on particular conductors and on a high standard of orchestral execution.

In the 1920s and 1930s economic and artistic considerations led to the formation of small concert societies, particularly those dedicated to the performance of music of the avant-garde, including [[Igor Stravinsky]] and [[Arnold Schoenberg]]. This tendency to start festival orchestras or dedicated groups would also be pursued in the creation of summer musical festivals, and orchestras for the performance of smaller works. Among the most influential of these was the [[Academy of St. Martin in the Fields]] under the baton of Sir [[Neville Marriner]].

With the advent of the early music movement, orchestras where players worked on execution of works in styles derived from the study of older treatises on playing became common. These include the [[London Classical Players]] under the direction of Sir [[Roger Norrington]] and the [[Academy of Ancient Music]] under [[Christopher Hogwood]], among others.

The late 20th century saw a crisis of funding and support for orchestras in the United States and, to a lesser extent, in Europe. The size and cost of a symphony orchestra, compared to the size of the base of supporters, became an issue that struck at the core of the institution. The drastic falling-off of revenues from recording, tied to no small extent to changes in the recording industry itself, began a period of change that has yet to reach its conclusion. Critics such as [[Norman Lebrecht]] were vocal in their diagnosis of the problem as the "jet set conductor" and the problems of orchestral repertory and management, while other music administrators such as [[Michael Tilson Thomas]] and [[Esa-Pekka Salonen]] argued that new music, new means of presenting it, and a renewed relationship with the community could revitalize the symphony orchestra.

In the meantime, orchestras made their way to the [[mass culture]]. Versatile composer [[Michael Jackson]] used symphonic orchestra to implement his artistic self-expression in [[postmodern music]] and neoclassical pieces (''Morphine'', 1997, ''Childhood'', ''Little Susie'', 1995, ''Speechless'', 2001).

A conductorless orchestra:
The post-revolutionary Первый Симфонический Ансамбль (Pervyi Simfonicheskii Ansambl' – First Symphonic Ensemble) was formed in the [[USSR]] in 1922. The unusual aspect of the orchestra was that, believing that in the ideal [[Marxist]] state all men are equal, its members felt that there was no need to be led by the dictatorial baton of a [[Conducting|conductor]]; instead they were led by a [[committee]]. Although it was a partial success, the principal difficulty with the concept was in changing [[tempo]]. The orchestra survived for ten years and had to be disbanded only when the individual talents began to rebel against the rigid control under which they were expected to play.

Some ensembles, such as the Orpheus Ensemble, based in [[New York City]], have had more success, although decisions are likely to be deferred to some sense of leadership within the ensemble (for example, the principal wind and string players).

Others have returned to the tradition of a principal player, usually a violinist, being the artistic director and running rehearsals (such as the [[Australian Chamber Orchestra]]).
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==Husorkester==
Husorkestre har det vært ved flere restauranter i Norge, blant annet [[Theatercafeen]] der [[Reidar Thommessen]]<ref>[https://snl.no/Reidar_Thommessen Reidar Thommessen]</ref> var [[kapellmester]].

==Andre betydninger==
I antikkens [[Hellas]] var '''orkesteret''' området mellom [[auditorium]] og [[proscenium]] (eller [[scene]]n), og her var [[sangkor|koret]] og [[musiker]]ne plassert. Der er herfra det moderne ''orkester'' har fått sitt navn.

== Referanser ==
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[[Kategori:Orkestre| ]]